Science

A biomaterial that can mimic certain behaviors within biological tissues could advance regenerative medicine, disease modeling, soft robotics and more, according to researchers.

A biomaterial that can mimic certain behaviors within biological tissues could advance regenerative medicine, disease modeling, soft robotics and more, according to researchers.

An international team of researchers has shown that countless tiny ice quakes take place in one of Greenland's mightiest ice streams. This finding will allow the flowing of the ice sheet and associated changes in sea level to be estimated more accurately.

Mantis shrimp withstand repeated high-impact forces without structural damage. Researchers discovered the shrimp's clubs feature a protective pattern that controls how stress waves travel through its body. The patterns resemble herringbone and twisted, corkscrew arrangements. Insights from this discovery could inspire advanced protective materials for reducing blast-related injuries.

The sounds that make up humpback whale songs follow some of the same statistical rules seen in human languages, which may be because of how they are learned

Nearly every disease has an inflammatory component, but blood tests can't pinpoint inflammation in specific organs or tissues in the human body. Now researchers have developed a method to detect inflammation using antibodies, potentially leading to blood tests for disease-specific biomarkers such as for heart disease, Alzheimer's disease and various cancers. Their breakthrough also holds promise for drug discovery.

We’ve only gotten one close-up view of Uranus and its moons, and it happened decades ago. In 1986, Voyager 2 performed a flyby of Uranus from about 81,500 km (50,600 mi) of the planet’s cloud tops. It was 130,000 km (80,000 mi) away from Uranus’ moon, Ariel, when it captured the leading image. It showed some unusual features that scientists are still puzzling over.

What do they reveal about the moon’s interior?

Ariel has the usual crater-pitted surface that most Solar System objects display. But its surface also has complex features like ridges, canyons, and steep banks and slopes called scarps. Research published last year suggested that these surface features and chemical deposits are caused by chemical processes inside the moon. Ariel could even have an internal ocean, according to the research.

New research published in The Planetary Science Journal digs deeper into the issue to try and understand what processes could create Ariel’s surface features. Its title is “Ariel’s Medial Grooves: Spreading Centers on a Candidate Ocean World.” The lead author is Chloe Beddingfield from Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory (JHUAPL).

“Ariel is a candidate ocean world, and recent observations from the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) confirmed that its surface is mantled by a large amount of CO2 ice mixed with lower amounts of CO ice,” Beddingfield and her co-researchers write in their paper. These materials should be unstable on Ariel, though, and should sublimate away into space. “Consequently, the observed constituents on Ariel are likely replenished, possibly from endogenic sources,” the authors write.

The research is centred on Ariel’s chasma-medial groove systems and how they formed. These are trenches that cut straight through the moon’s huge canyons. While previous research has suggested that the trenches are tectonic fractures, this research arrives at a different hypothesis. “We present evidence that Ariel’s massive chasma-medial groove systems formed via spreading, where internally sourced material ascended and formed new crust,” the paper states.

This Voyager 2 image of Ariel shows the names of some of the moon’s surface features. Image Credit: By Ariel_(moon).jpg: NASA/Jet Propulsion Labderivative work: Ruslik (talk) – Ariel_(moon).jpg, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=12867133

This is similar to ocean-floor spreading on Earth, which is where new crust forms. If true, it can account for Ariel’s surface deposits of carbon dioxide ice and other carbon-bearing molecules.

“If we’re right, these medial grooves are probably the best candidates for sourcing those carbon oxide deposits and uncovering more details about the moon’s interior,” Beddingfield said in a press release. “No other surface features show evidence of facilitating the movement of materials from inside Ariel, making this finding particularly exciting.”

Ariel’s surface is dominated by three main terrain types: plains, ridged terrain, and cratered terrain. The cratered terrain is the oldest and most extensive type of terrain. The ridged terrain is the second main terrain type and is made of bands of ridges and troughs that can extend for hundreds of kilometres. The plains are the third type and are the youngest of the terrains. They’re on canyon floors and in depressions in the middle of the cratered terrain.

As far as scientists can tell, the grooves that intersect the canyons are the youngest surface features on Ariel. Previous research suggested that they result from the interplay between volcanic and tectonic processes. However, this research says otherwise: spreading could be responsible.

This image (Figure 1) from the research puts Ariel’s complex surface on full display. The locations of the three known medial grooves are shown in red. Image Credit: Beddingfield et al. 2025.

In the 1960s, scientists validated the idea of seafloor spreading on Earth, which led to the acceptance of plate tectonics. One of the main pieces of evidence for plate tectonics is the way the edges of continents like Africa and South America fit together if you “remove” the Atlantic Ocean and the intervening seafloor.

The same thing happened when Beddingfield and her colleagues “removed” the chasm floors on Ariel.

The researchers showed that when they removed the floors of the chasms, the margins lined up. This is strong evidence of spreading. “The margins of Brownie, Kewpie, Korrigan, Pixie, and Sylph Chasmata closely align when the Intermediate Age Smooth Materials (orange unit in Figure 1), which make up the chasma floors, are removed and the Cratered Plains (green unit in Figure 1) are reconstructed,” they write.

This figure from the study shows possible configurations of Ariel’s Cratered Plains before (left) and after (right) spreading occurred. Note how neatly the chasma walls line up. “Our reconstruction focuses on removing the young chasma floors, examining the offset of the Kra Chasma segments, and aligning the similarly shaped chasma walls,” the authors write. Image Credit: Beddingfield et al. 2025.

According to the research, spreading centers develop above convention cells underneath Ariel’s crust, and heat forces material upward to the crust. The material cools at the surface, forming new crust. The entire process is driven by tidal forces as Ariel orbits the much larger Uranus. This heats the moon’s interior, creating the convection. Some of the moon’s interior cycles between heating as the moon follows its orbit. It’s possible that internal material continuously melts and then refreezes.

“It’s a fascinating situation — how this cycle affects these moons, their evolution and their characteristics,” Beddingfield said.

Like other Solar System moons that experience tidal heating, Ariel may have an ocean under its surface. In a 2024 study, researchers proposed that another of Uranus’ moons, Miranda, could have a subsurface ocean maintained by tidal heating.

However, Beddingfield is skeptical about drawing a connection between Ariel’s grooves and a potential ocean.

“The size of Ariel’s possible ocean and its depth beneath the surface can only be estimated, but it may be too isolated to interact with spreading centers,” she said. “There’s just a lot we don’t know. And while carbon oxide ices are present on Ariel’s surface, it’s still unclear whether they’re associated with the grooves because Voyager 2 didn’t have instruments that could map the distribution of ices.”

The connection between the grooves and the materials deposited on Ariel’s surface is stronger though. “These new results suggest a possible mechanism for emplacing fresh material and short-lived compounds, including carbon monoxide and perhaps ammonia-bearing species on the surface,” said Tom Nordheim, a co-author of this research and the 2024 paper.

“Our results indicate that medial grooves in large chasmata on Ariel are spreading centers, resulting from the exposure of subsurface material, creating new crust,” the authors summarize in their conclusion. “Thus, these features are likely geologic conduits to Ariel’s interior and could be the primary source of CO2, CO, and other volatiles detected on its surface.”

Richard Cartwright from the Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory led the 2024 study that used the JWST to identify CO ice and CO2 deposits on Ariel. To find more answers about this intriguing moon, Cartwright says we need a dedicated mission to Uranus and its moons. “We need an orbiter that can make close passes of Ariel, map its medial grooves in detail, and analyze their spectral signatures for components like carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide,” he said. “If carbon-bearing molecules are concentrated along these grooves, then it would strongly support the idea that they’re windows into Ariel’s interior.”

The authors agree that only a dedicated mission can provide answers. “The medial grooves are some of the youngest geologic features observed on Ariel, and close flybys of these features by a future Uranus orbiter are imperative to gain insight into recent geologic events and the geologic and geochemical properties of this candidate ocean world,” they write.

There’ve been many proposed missions to Uranus. NASA, the ESA, JAXA, and the CNSA (China National Space Administration) have all had proposals. NASA’s Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission would study Uranus and its moons from orbit by conducting multiple flybys of each major moon. The probe would enter Uranus’ atmosphere. However, even if selected, a plutonium shortage means the mission wouldn’t launch until the mid or late 2030s.

A graphic explaining some of the features of NASA’s proposed Uranus Orbiter and Probe mission. Image Credit: NASA.

So far, only China has firm plans to send a spacecraft to the ice giant. It will be part of their Tianwen-4 mission to Jupiter and would perform a single flyby of Uranus. The next launch windows for a mission to Uranus are between 2030 and 2034, but China’s mission isn’t scheduled until 2045.

Press Release: New Study Suggests Trench-Like Features on Uranus’ Moon Ariel May Be Windows to Its Interior

Research: Ariel’s Medial Grooves: Spreading Centers on a Candidate Ocean World

The post Uranus’ Moon Ariel has Deep Gashes, Could Reveal its Interior appeared first on Universe Today.

Electric sparks are used for welding, powering electronics, killing germs or for igniting the fuel in some car engines. Despite their usefulness, they are hard to control in open space, they split into chaotic branches that tend to go towards the closest metallic objects. A recent study uncovers a way of transporting electricity through air by ultrasonic waves. The level of control of the electric sparks allows to guide the spark around obstacles, or to make it hit specific spots, even into non-conductive materials.

Electric sparks are used for welding, powering electronics, killing germs or for igniting the fuel in some car engines. Despite their usefulness, they are hard to control in open space, they split into chaotic branches that tend to go towards the closest metallic objects. A recent study uncovers a way of transporting electricity through air by ultrasonic waves. The level of control of the electric sparks allows to guide the spark around obstacles, or to make it hit specific spots, even into non-conductive materials.

Researchers created platinum-mixed metallic magnetic nanofilms that are 5x more efficient -- the ultimate energy-saving solution.

A team of international researchers has developed an innovative approach to uncover the secrets of dark matter in the cosmos. They are searching for dark matter using atomic clocks and cavity-stabilized lasers.

A team of international researchers has developed an innovative approach to uncover the secrets of dark matter in the cosmos. They are searching for dark matter using atomic clocks and cavity-stabilized lasers.

A team of physicists has developed a groundbreaking method for detecting congestive heart failure with greater ease and precision than previously thought possible. This multidisciplinary study, involving both cardiologists and computational physicists, builds on the team's earlier breakthroughs, for example, in predicting the risk of sudden cardiac death.

Researchers have developed an innovative method to improve next-generation wireless networks. Their approach ensures faster, more reliable connections by simplifying how large amounts of signal data are managed and using artificial intelligence to predict and correct errors. The findings promise significant benefits for high-speed travel, satellite communication, and disaster response applications.

Epoxy resins are coatings and adhesives used in a broad range of familiar applications, such as construction, engineering and manufacturing. However, they often present a challenge to recycle or dispose of responsibly. Now a team of researchers has developed a method to efficiently reclaim materials from a range of epoxy products for reuse by using a novel solid catalyst.

A new study focusing on Enceladus, a moon of Saturn, shows that the physics of alien oceans could prevent evidence of deep-sea life from reaching places where we can detect it.

In a new study, scientists show that a mix of policy measures, including both technological solutions and behavioral changes, can significantly reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from energy use in buildings and transport.

Astronomers have characterized the largest-ever early-Universe radio jet. Historically, such large radio jets have remained elusive in the distant Universe. With these observations, astronomers have valuable new insights into when the first jets formed in the Universe and how they impacted the evolution of galaxies.

The 1953 paper in Nature by Watson and Crick positing a structure for DNA is about one page long, while the Wilkins et al. and Franklin and Gosling papers in the same issue are about two pages each. Altogether, these five pages resulted in three Nobel Prizes (it might have been four had Franklin lived).

Sadly, such concision has fallen by the way now that ideology has invaded the journal. This new paper in Nature (below), a perspective that touts the scientific advantage to neurobiology of combining indigenous knowledge with modern science—the so-called “two eyed seeing” metaphor contrived by two First Nations elders in Canada 21 years ago—is 10.25 pages long, more than twice as long as the entire set of three DNA papers.  And yet it provides nothing even close to the earlier scientific advances.  That’s because, as you might have guessed, indigenous North Americans do not have a science of neurobiology, or ways of looking at the field that might be helpfully combined with what we already know.  What the authors tout at the outset isn’t substantiated in the rest of the paper.

Instead, the real point of the paper is that neuroscientists should treat indigenous peoples properly and ethically when involving them in neurobiological studies. In fact, the paper calls “Western” neuroscientists “settler colonialists,” which immediately tells you where this paper is coming from.  Now of course you must surely behave ethically if you are doing neuroscience, towards both animals and human subjects or participants, but this paper adds nothing to that already widespread view.  And it gives not a single example of how neuroscience itself has been or could be improved by incorporating indigenous perspectives.

The paper is a failure and Nature should be ashamed of wasting over ten pages—pages that could be devoted to good science—to say something that could occupy one paragraph.

Click below to read the paper, which is free with the legal Unpaywall app, or find the pdf here,

My heart is sinking as I realize that I have to discuss this “paper” after reading it twice, but let’s group its contentions under some headings (mine, though Nature‘s text is indented):

What is “two-eyed seeing”? 

This Perspective focuses on the integration of traditional Indigenous views with biomedical approaches to research and care for brain and mental health, and both the breadth of knowledge and intellectual humility that can result when the two are combined. We build upon the foundational framework of Two-Eyed Seeing1 to explore approaches to sharing sacred knowledge and recognize that many dual forms exist to serve a similar beneficial purpose. We offer an approach towards understanding how neuroscience has been influenced by colonization in the past and efforts undertaken to mitigate epistemic, social and environmental injustices in the future.

The principle of Two-Eyed Seeing or Etuaptmumk was conceived by Mi’kmaq Elders, Albert and Murdena Marshall, from Unama’ki (Cape Breton), Nova Scotia, Canada, in 20041 (Fig. 1). It is considered a gift of multiple perspectives, treasured by many Indigenous Peoples, which is enabled by learning to see from one eye with the strengths of Indigenous knowledge and ways of knowing, and from the other eye with the strengths of non-Indigenous knowledge and ways of knowing. It speaks not only to the importance of recognizing Indigenous knowledge as a distinct knowledge system alongside science, but also to the weaving of the Indigenous and Western world views. This integration has attained Canada-wide acceptance and is now widely considered an appropriate approach for researchers working with Indigenous communities.

It is, as you see, a push to incorporate indigenous “ways of knowing” into modern science—in this case neuroscience, though there’s precious little neuroscience in the paper. The paper coiuld have been written using nearly any area of science in which there are human subjects. And, in fact, we do have lots of papers about how biology, chemistry, and even physics can be improved by indigenous knowledge (“two-eyed seeing” is simply the Canadian version of that trope).

And as is so often the case in this kind of paper, there are simple, almost juvenile figures that don’t add anything to the text. The one below is from the paper. Note that modern science is called “Western”, a misnomer that is almost always used, and is meant to imply that the knowledge of the “West” is woefully incomplete.

Isn’t that edifying?

What is two-eyed seeing supposed to accomplish?  Some quotes:

Here we argue that the integration of Indigenous perspectives and knowledge is necessary to further deepen the understanding of the brain and to ensure sustainable development of research4 and clinical practices for brain health5,6 (Table 1 and Fig. 2). We recognize that, in some parts of the world, the term Indigenous is understood differently. We are guided by the United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues that identifies Indigenous people as

[…] holders of unique languages, knowledge systems and beliefs and possess invaluable knowledge of practices for the sustainable management of natural resources. They have a special relation to and use of their traditional land. Their ancestral land has a fundamental importance for their collective physical and cultural survival as peoples. Indigenous peoples hold their own diverse concepts of development, based on their traditional values, visions, needs and priorities.

. . . There are many compelling reasons for neuroscientists who study the human brain and mind to engage with other ways of knowing and pursue active allyship, and few convincing reasons to not. Fundamentally, a willingness to engage meaningfully with a range of modes of thought, world views, methods of inquiry and means of communicating knowledge is a matter of intellectual and epistemic humility11. Epistemic humility is defined as “the ability to critically reflect on our ontological commitments, beliefs and belief systems, our biases, and our assumptions, and being willing to change or modify them”12. It shares features with interdisciplinary thinking within Western academic traditions, but it stands to be even more enlightening by providing entirely new approaches to understanding. Epistemic humility is an acknowledgement that all interactions with the world, including the practice of neuroscience, are influenced by mental frameworks, experiences and both unconscious and overt biases.

“Humility” and “allyship” are always red-flag words, and they it is supposed to apply entirely to the settler-colinialist scientists, not to indigenous people.

Why is “one eyed” modern science harmful?  Quotes:

Brain science has largely drawn on ontological and epistemological cultural ways of being and knowing, which are dominantly held in Western countries, such as those in North America and Europe. In cross-cultural neuroscience involving Indigenous people and communities, both epistemic and cultural humility call for an understanding of the history of colonialism, discrimination, injustice and harm caused under a false umbrella of science; critical examination of the origins of current and emerging scientific assessments; and consideration of the way culture shapes engagement between Western and Indigenous research, as well as care systems for brain and mental health.

. . . Why, then, is such engagement with Indigenous ways of knowing not more widespread in human neuroscience research and care? There would seem to be a litany of reasons: ongoing oppression and marginalization of Indigenous peoples in many societies and scientific communities, individual and systemic epistemic arrogance in which only the Western way of knowing is perceived to be of value, lack of knowledge of other knowledge systems, lack of relationships with Indigenous partners that has been fuelled in part by the exclusion and marginalization of Indigenous scholars in academia, challenges to identifying ways of decolonizing or Indigenizing a particular area of study and fear of consequences for making mistakes or causing offence9,15, among others.

. . . Given existing power imbalances, Western knowledge largely dominates the world in which Indigenous peoples reside and, as a result, there is often no choice as to whether to engage with it. In contrast, non-Indigenous peoples have the privilege to choose whether to engage with Indigenous knowledge systems. Although significant learning about Indigenous knowledge systems for settler colonialists remains, full reciprocity is not necessarily a requirement.

Here we see the singling out of power imbalances, the emphasis on colonialism, and the supposed denigration of valuable “indigenous knowledge systems” (which aren’t defined)—all  of which are part of Critical Social Justice ideology. But note the first sentence above: the implication that “two-eyed seeing” is supposed to actually improve brain science itself.

On neuroethics. In fact, the authors give no examples where it does that. Instead, the concentration of the paper is on “neuroethics”.  I talked to my colleague Peggy Mason, a neuroscientist here, about neuroethics, and she told me that it comes in two forms. The first one, which Peggy finds more interesting, is looking at ethical questions through the lens of neuroscience. One example is determinism, and in Robert Sapolsky’s new book Determined you can see how he uses neuroscience to arrive at his deterministic conclusions and their ethical implications.

The other form of neuroethics is the one used in this paper: how to ethically deal with animals and people used in neuroscience studies. These are, in effect, “reserach ethics”, and have been a subject of discussion in recent decades.  As the paper shows above, the real “revolution” in neuroscience touted in the title is simply the realization by those pesky settler-eolonialist neuroscientists that they must exercise sensitivity and empathy towards indigenous people (the implication is that they are uncomprehending and patronizing).

The next section shows the scientific vacuity of melding two types of knowledge: the real “two-eyed seeing” objective.

How has two-eyed seeing improved our understanding of neuroscience? No convincing examples are given in the paper, but here are a few game tries:

Historically, Indigenous peoples have been largely excluded from brain and mental health science, or included but never benefited from the scientific advancements. There are also ample examples, in the brain and mental health sciences and elsewhere, in which the cultural beliefs of Indigenous peoples were patently disrespected. A distinct example is the Havasupai Tribe case, where scientists at Arizona State University in the USA used blood samples they had collected from the Havasupai people to conduct unconsented research on schizophrenia, inbreeding and human population migration20. The Havasupai people, who have strong beliefs about blood and its relation to their sense of identity, spiritual connection and cultural cohesion, were advised that the blood samples were being collected for purposes of conducting diabetes research. The community filed two lawsuits against the university upon learning about the misuse of their blood samples for research questions they do not support.

In another stark example, results from an international genomics study on the genetic structure of ‘Indigenous peoples’ [sic] recruited in Namibia21 were compared to results of a study of the ‘Bantu-speaking people of southern Africa’22,23. The Namibian people were the Indigenous San (including the!Xun, Khwe and ‡Khomani) and Khoekhoe people who include the Nama and Griqua, first to be colonized in southern Africa21. Among numerous missteps in the research, published supplementary materials contained information entirely unrelated to genomics and other information about the San that was unconsented, private, pejorative and discriminatory.

These examples of violations of research ethics in neuroscience and genomics highlight the need for Two-Eyed Seeing to ensure individual and professional scientific integrity.

Neither of these are examples of improvements in understanding neuroscience via “two-eyed seeing”. One is about the proper and ethical way to collect blood from indigenous people; the other is about genetic differences between African populations.

Can we do better? How about an example from studies of mental health?

Other successful studies among the amaXhosa people in South Africa in 2020 exemplify the embodiment of cultural humility and trust-building. Gulsuner et al.29 and Campbell et al.30 demonstrated the importance of inviting people with lived experience of a mental health condition, brain and mental health professionals, members of the criminal justice system, local hospital staff as well as traditional and faith-based healers to provide education about severe mental illness and local psychosocial support structures to promote recovery. Through co-design, implementation and evaluation, the researchers assessed the effects of the co-created mental health community engagement in enhancing understanding of schizophrenia and neuropsychiatric genomics research as it pertains to this disorder30. They collaboratively presented mental health information and research in a culturally sensitive way, both respecting the local conceptualization of mental health and guarding against the possible harms of stigma31. They incorporated cultural practices, such as song, dance and prayer, with the guidance of key community leaders and amaXhosa people that included families affected by schizophrenia, to foster a process of multidirectional enlightenment and, in effect, Two-Eyed Seeing.

Again we see the emphasis on cultural sensitivity, which of course I agree with, but whether and how this method helped us understand how to cure schizophrenia and improve “neuropsychiatric genomics research” is not explained. There may be something there, but the authors fail to tell us what.

Finally, the authors relate the sad story of Lia Lee, a severely epileptic Hmong child in California whose treatment was difficult (she was in a vegetative state for 26 of her 30 years after her last seizure), for the doctors couldn’t communicate with the parents (see here and here) . Treatment was further impeded because the Hmong parents, who really loved Lia deeply, also believed that epilepsy was a sign that she was spiritually gifted, and so were conflicted and erratic in giving her the prescribed medication.  This is an example where some indigenous beliefs are harmful to treatment, just as in some cultures that mistreat people who are mentally ill because they think they are possessed by supernatural powers. Two-eyed seeing is not always good for patients!  From the paper:

Epilepsy serves as a poignant example of how a dual perspective can enrich the spirituality of health and wellbeing, and where collisions with biomedicine can lead to tragic consequences. One example can be taken from the book The Spirit Catches You and You Fall Down, in which author Anne Fadiman51 documents the story of Lia Lee, a Hmong child affected with Lennox–Gastaut syndrome. Lia’s parents attributed the symptoms of her seizures to the flight of her soul in response to a frightening noise—quab dab peg (the spirit catches you and you fall down; translated as epilepsy in Hmong–English dictionaries) and, although concerned, were reluctant to intervene because they viewed its symptoms as a form of spiritual giftedness. Lia’s doctors were faced with limited therapeutic choices, challenges of communication, and a general lack of cultural competence. Exacerbated by disconnects and failures of both traditional and Western healthcare, responsive options and years of effort were eclipsed in a perfect storm of mistrust and misunderstanding.

Since the 1990s when the book was written, closing gaps in health equity, reducing the marginalization of vulnerable and historically neglected populations such as Indigenous peoples and promoting individual and collective autonomy have become a focus in both neuroscience research and clinical care.

Fadiman’s book is read widely in medical schools, used to promote cultural sensitivity towards patients.  That’s fine (though it couldn’t have helped Lia), but again it doesn’t help us understand neuroscience itself.

What are some of the indigenous practices said to contribute to neuroscience?  Several are mentioned, but have nothing to do with neuroscience. Here’s one:

 . . . ,. there remains significant potential integrating Indigenous theories around the brain and mind. For example, while the Kulin nations conceptualize distinct philosophies of yulendj (knowledge/intelligence), toombadool (learning/teaching) and Ngarnga (understanding/comprehension), views of the mind and brain tend to not be static and individualistic, but holistic, dynamic and interwoven symbiotically within the broader environment. The durndurn (brain) is not just a singular organ, but a part of the body that contains some aspects of a murrup (spirit), within the pedagogy of a broader songline.

This concept of a songline is present across many Indigenous cultures35. Although songlines can present as dreaming stories, art, song and dance, their most common use is as a mnemonic. Such is the success of using songlines in memory that it has allowed oral history to accurately survive tens of thousands of years—with accuracy often setting precedent for scientific verification. The breadth of their use would allow the common person to memorize thousands of plants, animals, insects, navigation, astronomy, laws, geological features and genealogy. Whether conceived as songlines, Native American pilgrimage trails, Inca ceques or Polynesian ceremonial roads, all use similar Indigenous methods of memorization36. This aligns with modern neuroscience findings that emphasize the capacity of the brain for complex memory processes and the role of mnemonic techniques in enhancing memory retention. Moser, Moser and O’Keefe were awarded the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for research that grounded the relationship between memory and spatial awareness when establishing that entorhinal grid cells form a positioning system as a cognitive representation of the inhabited space. Elevated hippocampal activity when utilizing spatial learning encourages strong memorization through associative attachment, and these techniques are readily used by competitive memory champions. Two-Eyed Seeing songlines for the mind and brain build capacity in facilitating a respectful implementation of traditional memorization techniques in broader contemporary settings37.

Songs and word of mouth allow indigenous people to pass knowledge along. That’s fine, except that knowledge passed on this way may get distorted. Writing—the “settler-colonialist” way of preserving knowledge—is much better and more reliable. It also allows for mathematical and statistical analysis. Again, there is nothing in the two-eyed seeing that improves neuroscience, at least nothing I can see.

There’s a lot more in this long, tedious, and tendentious paper, but I won’t bore you. I do think it would make a great pedagogical tool for neuroscience students, who can evaluate the paper’s claims at the same time as discerning the ideological slant of the paper (as well as its intellectual vacuity).  We’ve come to a pretty pass when one of the world’s two best scientific journals publishes pabulum like this in the interest of sacralizing indigenous people. Yes, indigenous people can contribute knowledge (“justified true belief”) to the canons of science, but, as we’ve seen repeatedly, that knowledge is usually scanty, overblown, and largely irrelevant to modern science. But Social Justice has stuck its nose in the tent science, and papers like this are the result. . .

Genetic analysis suggests a form of mosquito found in urban subway systems evolved in the Middle East thousands of years ago