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Earlier today I criticized Angel Eduardo for making a useful but un-original plea for comity between people of conflicting ideologies. (Try that with Jewish students and pro-Palestinian demonstrators!)

Apparently a false rumor started that J.D. Vance (whom he calls a “giant asshole”) was copulating with his couch, leading to Maher’s claim that we’re all willing to believe the worst things possible about our opponents. That leads to the conclusion that we shouldn’t characterize farmers as “hicks”, nor write off entire states as either “red” or “blue”.  The conclusion: “America is a funny, mixed-up place now.”  He then admits that while he used to hate country music, it’s become good and shouldn’t be dismissed as the music of racists and bumpkins.

So why do I beef about Angel Eduardo and show you Maher’s weekly comedy bit, both of which make the same point? Because Maher’s presentation is funny and entertaining, He concludes by saying, “Why don’t we just resist our worst impulses?”

The audience applauds, but then they’ll go home and demonize the other side!

Here we have two different British media venues: the Sunday Times of London and The Economist, coming to different conclusions about a questions that gnaws on many of us: “Is wokeness in America on the wane or on the rise?”

The Times (second article below) says “no, we aren’t even near peak wokeness”, taking issue with the Economist article (first headline below), which, based on thei analysis of trends in views and in the use of “woke” terms in the media, says wokeness has peaked.  First, the Economist piece (click to read)

The results of the Economist survey and a chart:

The simplest way to measure the spread of woke views is through polling. We examined responses over the past 25 years to polls conducted by Gallup, General Social Survey (GSS), Pew and YouGov. Woke opinions on racial discrimination began to grow around 2015 and peaked around 2021. In the most recent Gallup data, from earlier this year, 35% of people said they worried “a great deal” about race relations, down from a peak of 48% in 2021 but up from 17% in 2014. According to Pew, the share of Americans who agree that white people enjoy advantages in life that black people do not (“white privilege”, in the jargon) peaked in 2020. In GSS’s data the view that discrimination is the main reason for differences in outcomes between races peaked in 2021 and fell in the most recent version of the survey, in 2022. Some of the biggest leaps and subsequent declines in woke thinking have been among young people and those on the left.

Here’s their chart. I have to say that, with the exception of race being the most important issue in the U.S., which could be dampened by the election and concerns about the economy and immigration, I’m not impressed by the “peaks”.  Wokeness is still way higher than it was just ten years ago.

Polling about sexual discrimination reveals a similar pattern, albeit with an earlier peak than concerns about race. The share of Americans who consider sexism a very or moderately big problem peaked at 70% in 2018, in the aftermath of #MeToo. The share believing that women face obstacles that make it hard to get ahead peaked in 2019, at 57%. Woke views on gender are also in decline. Pew finds that the share of people who believe someone can be a different sex from the one of their birth has fallen steadily since 2017, when it first asked the question. Opposition to trans students playing in sports teams that match their chosen gender rather than their biological sex has grown from 53% in 2022 to 61% in 2024, according to YouGov.

Now that last statistic, about trans students—clearly males identifying as females playing on teams not matching their biological sex (I love that term)—I do find convincing, simply because in the media I see increasing opposition to it, and think that, on issues of fairness alone, the “transwomen are women” trope, and vice versa, is on the way out. This is about fairness (morality), not solely ideology. And, of course, you can’t contest the data on the frequency of terms used, but again, Biden and the election have pushed woke issues largely to the side. More from The Economist:

To corroborate the trend revealed by opinion polls, we measured how frequently the media have been using woke terms like “intersectionality”, “microaggression”, “oppression”, “white privilege” and “transphobia”. At our request, David Rozado, an academic based in New Zealand, counted the frequency of 154 of such words in six newspapers—the Los Angeles Times, New York Times, New York Post, Wall Street Journal, Washington Post and Washington Times—between 1970 and 2023. In all but the Los Angeles Times, the frequency of these terms peaked between 2019 and 2021, and has fallen since. Take the term “white privilege”: in 2020 it featured roughly 2.5 times for every million words in the New York Times, but by 2023 had fallen to just 0.4 mentions for every million words.

Still, maybe, just maybe, the Economist is right. The use of “white privilege”, for example, is only 16% of what it was just three years before.

The Times rejects the “peak” conclusion, although they are going largely on intuition rather than statistics. Still, the article has a point: we need longer-term data, and the wokesters haven’t yet taken over society since they’re too young to have attained much power.

Click to read, or find the Times article archived here.

Matthew Syed, disagrees with the Economist thesis because of “invisible data”! I couldn’t resist some self-aggrandizement in what I excerpt below, but it does belong in their analysis:

Last week The Economist published an exhaustive analysis of the rise and apparent fall of wokeism. The magazine defined woke — I think rightly — as a term that has morphed over the decades from denoting an awareness of racism to a spectrum of views encompassing structural racism, radical trans rights, cancellation and the like. I won’t waste time pinning down definitions since, as with pornography, I suspect most of us know wokeism when we see it (although perhaps that is now a view that could get me cancelled).

The Economist looked at a variety of trends: how often terms like “intersectionality” and “white privilege” are used in print media (it examined millions of articles); how often they are used in TV programmes (it analysed thousands of transcripts); how often they are used in scientific papers; how often they feature in companies’ financial reports; how often calls are made for academics to be disciplined; and so on. As I say, the data was exhaustive and, I would add, superbly assembled.

But it was the way The Economist interpreted the data that troubled me. It noted that trends, by almost all these measures, particularly in America, were falling back after a high point roughly around the aftermath of the George Floyd riots. It concluded that the phenomenon was on the decline. We are, it said, almost audibly breathing a sigh of relief, “past peak woke”.

I disagree. I say this because, while the visible data reveals a clear pattern, I find myself asking: what about the invisible data? What about the cancellations that have become so normalised they are no longer reported? What about the initiatives (like mandatory unconscious bias training, which has never had evidence to support it) that are no longer mentioned in quarterly reports because they have become routine? What about the conservatives who self-censor out of fear of cancellation? When you take a step back, the data shows that woke is not past its peak but has moved from the wallpaper and into the brickwork.

Consider that Auckland University has now started requiring all students to take a course that is “effectively indoctrination in the coloniser/indigeneity hierarchy”, according to the decorated academic Jerry Coyne. This was scarcely reported. The list of cancellations in western universities grows daily, but is no longer newsworthy.

Or take a blog post from ten days ago revealing the scale of censorship in publishing, none of which shows up in datasets because the books are not, well, published (the subhead was: “Widespread censorship is killing writers’ careers before they begin”). I know authors who have had to edit out words like “stupid” and “mad” because they are considered “ableist”; who have deleted references to drinking through straws as they might prove offensive to people with disabilities who can’t use a straw; who have referred to the moon as “a small white rock orbiting the Earth” and had to remove “white” because it was racially sensitive. And I haven’t even mentioned how difficult it is to publish anything that hints at benign aspects of the British empire.

(I have to note that my article was about New Zealand, not the U.S., which was what the Economist piece was about.)

But, as you see, Syed doesn’t really give data; rather, he gives anecdotes (there are more). But it is true that deplatformings and censorship aren’t considered by the Economist, and I suspect that FIRE’s database of college deplatforming really would show an increase in the last few years (do the analysis yourself). And of course a lot of wokeness was instantiated by pro-Palestinian demonstrators, who are by and large on the Left and see Israel as white oppressors. Yet none of the friction caused by those demonstrations aren’t measured, either, and the issue isn’t going away any time soon.

Syed’s main thesis is that the woke are young and haven’t gotten societal power that will keep wokeness increasing.

Forgive a crude generalisation, but those on the right tend to go into finance and business because they are motivated by money. Those on the left tend to go into museums, charities and academia because they are willing to play a longer game. That is why cultural institutions trend left and Marxists console themselves with the thought that, while they live in smaller houses, they have the greater — if subtler — influence.

And this, I fear, is the other fallacy in The Economist’s analysis. It’s true that a fightback against wokeism has begun, largely driven by older liberals who — after cowering rather pathetically out of fear of cancellation — started to stand up for free speech, due process and the reality of biological sex. But you can glimpse its grip on our cultural institutions in the fact that much of Gen Z, which will soon replace the present generation in positions of political, cultural and corporate power — has markedly different views. And that is why it is in a decade or so that the rubber will hit the road: on women’s rights, single-sex spaces, free speech, the West’s relationship with Israel, our understanding of history, indeed our very sense of self.

Well, the liberal mainstream media is already colonized by the woke (check reports about the Slack channel of NYT reporters), but there are still nonwoke people writing for the paper. What happens when they leave?

In the end, Syed asserts that he is somewhat of a progressive, and is in favor of diversity, forms of affirmative action, and so on. But he ends like this:

But I have long feared radical wokeism, a strangely transmissible virus that could yet prove lethal to our future, and that has inspired a mirror version on the populist right, which seems just as keen to denigrate our history, the memory of Churchill and Nato.

That is why epitaphs for wokeism are not just premature but dangerous. Indeed, when you look at the invisible data, you’ll see that the fightback has only just begun.

My take: I am not sure if wokeness is on the wane. Certain aspects of it are, like the willingness to allow men identified as women to enter women’s spaces, but other aspects are on the rise, most visibly (to me) the incursion of wokeness into science journals and magazines. But the important conclusion is that wokeness is here and ubiquitous, and seems entrenched in many areas. But whether or not it’s increasing, it needs to be fought at every turn. And that means that those of us who object to the invidious side of Social Justice—of course “social justice” is not all bad; I’m referring to  the ca[ota;ozed performative and non-effective pretense of fixing society by changing words, bird names, and monitoring speech and behavior—must stand up and call out this nonsense when we see it,  It’s not pleasant, as you’ll be ostracized and demonized, if not fired, but since when was society ever improved without people taking flak from those who wrongly see themselves as the pinnacle of morality?

h/t: Pyers

 

When you get close to a black hole, things can get pretty intense. The tremendous gravity can squeeze gas to ionizing temperatures, and fierce magnetic fields can accelerate plasma into jets speeding at nearly the speed of light. That’s a lot of power, and wherever there is power someone will figure out how to harness it.

Back in 1969 Roger Penrose noted that you could theoretically extract energy from a black hole simply by dumping garbage into it. The idea was to pack a spaceship full of junk, fly really close to a black hole so that you travel within the region of strongly twisted space known as the ergosphere, then simply dump your trash. The trash gets consumed by the black hole and your spaceship gets a boost of energy. No need to reduce, reuse, recycle, just toss it down the cosmic hole.

How to turn trash into energy. Credit: Atomic Rockets, adapted from Misner, Thorne and Wheeler

While this should work in principle, the engineering needed to carry it off would be challenging, and harnessing energy from a fast-moving rocket wouldn’t be very efficient. Fortunately there should be another way, just using electromagnetic waves. In 1971 Yakov Zeldovich demonstrated how a rotating black hole could amplify electromagnetic waves. Essentially if you beam light toward a rotating black hole, some of the light will be ampified due to the frame dragging of gravity.

At least in theory.

Therein lies the problem. While all of this is theoretically sound, we don’t have a spare black hole lying around to prove it. Luckily the Zeldovich effect works for more than just black holes. Zeldovich showed that the effect should work for any rotating body that absorbs a bit of the energy aimed at it. So you should be able to bounce light against a rotating cylinder and see the effect. No black hole needed. The only problem is that the cylinder would need to rotate at relativistic speeds and the effect would be tiny. Then in 2020 a team showed how a similar effect worked with sound waves. They beamed low-frequency sound waves into an absorptive rotating disk and measured an increase in acoustic energy, proving the Zeldovich effect worked for sound.

Measuring the electromagnetic Zeldovich effect. Credit: Braidotti, et al

Now the team is back with a new paper showing the effect with electromagnetic waves.[^4] The way they did it was to adapt a resonant circuit. The circuit could focus an oscillating magnetic wave through a through an aluminum cylinder. By itself the cylinder would act as a simple resistor and dampen the magnetic field, but when the team rotated the cylinder in a particular way the magnetic field was amplified just as Zeldovich predicted. Since aluminum isn’t magnetic, the isn’t due to some dynamo effect. Thus the team could demonstrate it is a new effect.

So we now know rotating bodies, including black holes, can amplify electromagnetic fields. What’s also interesting about this experiment is how surprisingly straight forward it is. The design is similar to an induction generator used in wind turbines. The experiment could have been done decades ago, it’s just that no one had thought of it before. Sometimes the answer to a scientific question is right in front of you.

Reference: Braidotti, M. C., et al. “Amplification of electromagnetic fields by a rotating body.” Nature Communications 15.1 (2024): 5453.

The post Researchers Mimic Extracting Energy From Black Holes in the Lab appeared first on Universe Today.

I’m in America at the start of a five-week tour of America promoting this book, The Genetic Book of the Dead: A Darwinian Reverie, which is being published on the 17th of September in America. I’m having a good time. I’m in Texas—the first stop was Dallas, and the second stop is… pic.twitter.com/ogJpvmnoUi

— Richard Dawkins (@RichardDawkins) September 9, 2024

Last night I went to Richard Dawkins’s appearance at the Chicago Theater as part of his “The Final Bow” tour: the last time, he says, he’s going on the road to do lectures. (After here he goes to Los Angeles, San Francisco, Portland, and Vancouver, winding up in Old Blighty with talks at Oxford and Coventry.) I suppose that Richard, now 83, figured he was too old to be traipsing around on a five-week tour, but he also has a new book to promote and discuss, The Genetic Book of the Dead: A Darwinian Reverie.

The event last night was mixed: redeemed almost entirely by the presence and eloquence of Dawkins himself. As far as I can see, this tour, organized not by the Richard Dawkins Foundation (RDF) but a commercial outfit, was thrown together at the last minute, with the format being an initial ten-minute “warmup” lecture unrelated to the discussion, and then an interchange between Richard and a selected interlocutor, who happened last night to be journalist Jessie Singal.  In my view, it was not a great choice to enlist both Singal and the introducer, Angel Eduardo (now an editor with FIRE).  They weren’t even announced until a few days before the event, something that the RDF wouldn’t have done had they hosted this event. And neither person performed as well as I expected.

Eduardo talked for ten minutes about the divisiveness of online discussions, and how we should always assume the best intentions of our opponents, as well as characterizing their arguments as strongly as possible (“steelmanning”) instead of giving distorted views of their arguments (“strawmanning”). He bemoaned the nasty tone of much online argument. But these points have been amply made others like by Dan Dennett, and the hand-wringing about divisiveness, while pointing out a real phenomenon, was anodyne: we’ve heard it a million times before. I just wanted to get to the discussion between Singal and Dawkins, which lasted about an hour. You don’t need a warmup act for Dawkins.

Singal’s expertise in biology is limited to gender issues, and so the biology part of his questions concerned Richard’s views of transgender issues, and although the audience might not have known them, they do now. Richard asserted, for example, that it’s simply wrong for a man to identify as a woman and immediately, for example, to start competing in women’s sports. It was good to hear that pronounced with such authority from the stage, though I have no idea whether the audience questions took Richard to task about this (I had to leave after the discussion to catch a train).

Richard was also asked about having his 1996 “Humanist of the Year” award revoked because of the first tweet below:

I do not intend to disparage trans people. I see that my academic “Discuss” question has been misconstrued as such and I deplore this. It was also not my intent to ally in any way with Republican bigots in US now exploiting this issue .

— Richard Dawkins (@RichardDawkins) April 12, 2021

Shame on the American Humanists for this! Richard was simply puzzled about why changing gender is applauded but changing race is demonized. He was especially baffled because, he said, gender is a spectrum, and it’s much easier to sell the claim that you’ve changed genders (without drugs and surgery, that is) than to claim that you’re actually a member of a race you weren’t born into. This in fact is the subject of Rebecca Tuvel’s famous Hypatia article that caused such a fracas when it was published, and yet it’s a valid subject to discuss. (In fact, I’ve discussed it here.) I still don’t understand why it’s okay to change genders but not races—especially, as in the case of Rachel Dolezal, her identification as black (she was born white) seemed to be an honest one.

At any rate, perhaps the audience didn’t know this, but in my view Singal, who actually crowdsourced most of his questions to Richard from friends and others, sorely neglected Richard’s book itself (I wonder if he’d read it) in favor of asking a series of largely unrelated questions—questions about life on other planets and the future of humanity.

Richard did get in a few statements about evolution. One was an eloquent description of how cuckoos parasitize the nests of other species and mimic the eggs of their hosts, who will reject eggs that look “wrong.”  This had led to the enduring mystery of how each cuckoo manages to lay eggs that mimic those of its host, given that each female lays only one kind of egg but different cuckoo females parasitize diverse species of birds, and yet the different egg-types of female cuckoos (“gentes”) manage to remain egg-color specific despite mating with males who carry genes for other egg color. Why doesn’t a female carry both her color genes and different color genes from the male, producing intermediate eg that would be rejected by the hosts?

When I first heard about this years ago, I immediately thought of a solution: the egg-color-and-pattern genes must be on the female’s W chromosome. In in birds females are “heterogametic” WZ and males are “homogemetic” ZZ—unlike in mammals, in which males are XY and females XX. Thus, in cuckoos, the W chromosome is passed on exclusively from mothers to daughters, and no genetic material on that chromosome is mixed with DNA from males. This could ensure that a female lays only the same type of egg as her mother, no matter with whom her mother mated. (Females imprint on the nests of their hosts, and thus return yearly to the same species of host to lay their host-mimicking eggs.) We don’t yet know if this is the answer, but I suspect it’s correct, and we’ll find out within a few years.  Richard clearly became excited when describing this, and I was sad that this was about all the evolutionary biology he discussed in detail. Most of the “discussion” was simply Richard answering a series of diverse questions from Singal. Singal was more interested i, for example, n whether humans would somehow be made of metal in the future, and whether there was life on other planets—a tired old subject.

But what redeemed the discussion was Richard’s ability to take any question, no matter how many times he’d heard it, and make the answer fresh and interesting. So, with the exoplanet life question, he didn’t just saym “yes, there are millions of planets that could support life, so it must exist somewhere else”. Rather, he added that there were likely several barriers to producing technologically advanced life elsewhere in the universe (without technology to produce radio or light waves, we wouldn’t know if such life existed). The barriers, which Dawkins said were of several types, included the origin of life (probably pretty easy given that life evolved very soon after Earth cooled down), and then harder barriers like the evolution of a eukaryotic cell, the evolution of multicellularity, and then the evolution of a multicellular species with the smarts to produce technology.

Singal apparently didn’t have the acumen to ask Richard what I would have: a problem with his thesis that I wanted to explore. The thesis of The Genetic Book of the Dead is that we can reconstruct the environments of our ancestral species simply from knowing their DNA sequences. We simply sequence a species (ours is done, of course), look at the genes we have, figure out what those genes were involved in when they were active, and from that going on to conclude which adaptations our ancestors had. Ergo, we might conclude what kind of ancestral reptile, or what kind of ancestral fish, our ancestors were, and thus what environments they lived in.

There are two problems with this.  We can certainly use DNA sequences to reconstruct family trees, confirming our conclusion (already known at from morphology, fossils, and development) that yes, we’re evolved from fishy and reptilian ancestors. But trying to suss out the environments of those ancestors from DNA sequences is probably futile. For one thing, we don’t know what most genes actually do, and thus would be stymied since we don’t know which ancestral DNA constituted adaptations to the environment,—and if so, what kind of adaptations.  More important, most of the ancestral DNA we still have has been overwritten by the endless churning of natural selection, so even finding out what deep ancestral genes we had would be nearly impossible today. That’s the first question I would have asked Richard after he described the thesis of his book.

But perhaps this is just the biologist in me kvetching. Yet somehow, having known Richard for years, I think he’s most energized when discussing his first love, evolutionary biology and its wonders, and less energized when answering questions like “Would you like to be immortal?” (His answer, “No. I love life, but the prospect of eternity is frightening. Still, I’d like to have 200 years.”)

But one of the last questions from Singal was good: “If you died and found yourself in Heaven, and could get answers to three questions that have puzzled you, what would you ask?” Richard’s answers:

“How did life on Earth originate?”
“What is consciousness?” (I presume he means what neuronal configuration gives rise to subjective sensations, or “qualia”.)
“Is there ‘advanced’ life in other places in the Universe?”

The audience applauded these answers, which were good, though I’m sure Richard’s been asked this before. (I would probably have thought of the first and third, but not the second.)

I just thought of another question I would have asked him. (I may have even asked this during the few times I’ve been part of an onstage discussion with Richard.)

“If you were put in a time machine, and could be transported back to one location for one day, hoping to answer a question about biology, and were given only a paper and pencil to record what you say, when would you choose?”

(You couldn’t say “I would like to be there when life originated”, because in a day you couldn’t answer that question. But you could go back and look at things like dinosaurs or hominin ancestors.)

My conclusion: go see Richard if you get the chance. There are only a few more stops on his tour, and tickets are available. No matter who questions him, he will be giving good answers—and often funny ones. But really, the organizers of this tour should have thought better about who to enlist as interlocutors and “warm-up” acts. (To their credit, though, Masih Aliejad was one warm-up.)  And they shouldn’t have chosen these people at the last minute.

If you go, and if you’ve bought VIP tickets, bring your Dawkins books, for he’ll autograph as many as you have (no duplicate books, though, and you have to have shelled out for those VIP tickets. Still, when else are you going to get him to autograph his books?)

It’s Sunday, and that means another batch of bird photos by the estimable John Avise. John’s narrative and IDs are indented, and you can enlarge the pictures by clicking on them,

Dominican Republic Birds, Part 2  

This concludes our two-part series on birds of the Dominican Republic.  All of these photos were taken in 2006 during our annual meeting of the Pew Fellows in Marine Conservation.  The intent has been to showcase just a few of the many birds you might encounter on even a brief visit to this beautiful Hispaniolan country.

Hispaniolan Woodpecker (Melanerpes striatus):

House Sparrow (Passer domesticus) female:

Lesser Scaup (Aythya affinis), females:

Magnificent Frigatebird (Fregata magnificens) female:

Mourning Dove (Zenaida macroura):

Northern Mockingbird (Mimus polyglottos):

Palmchat (Dulus dominicus):

Ruddy Turnstone (Arenaria interpres):

Shiny Cowbird (Molothrus bonariensis) male:

Smooth-billed Ani (Crotophaga ani):

Turkey Vulture (Cathartes aura):

Vervain Hummingbird (Mellisuga minima):

Yellow-faced Grassquit (Tiaris olivaceus):

Yellow-throated Warbler (Setophaga dominica):

https://traffic.libsyn.com/secure/sciencesalon/mss470_Colin_Wright_2024_09_21.mp3 Download MP3

Biologist Colin Wright joins the podcast to explore one of today’s most contentious topics: the intersection of biological sex and gender.

Drawing on his expertise in animal behavior and evolutionary biology, Colin breaks down key concepts such as biological sex, gender identity, and gender dysphoria. He also examines the shift in societal definitions of what it means to be a man or woman, and how these evolving perspectives fit with long-standing biological principles.

This session was presented at FreedomFest 2024. To see more speeches and sessions from FreedomFest, visit freedomfest.com/civl.

If you enjoy the podcast, please show your support by making a $5 or $10 monthly donation.

Earth’s average global temperatures have been steadily increasing since the Industrial Revolution. According to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Agency (NOAA), Earth has been heating up at a rate of 0.06 °C (0.11 °F) per decade since 1850 – or about 1.11 °C (2 °F) in total. Since 1982, the average annual increase has been 0.20 °C (0.36 °F) per decade, more than three times as fast. What’s more, this trend is projected to increase by between 1.5 and 2 °C (2.7 to 3.6 °F) by mid-century, possibly more! This is a direct consequence of burning fossil fuels, which has increased exponentially since the mid-19th century.

Depending on the extent of temperature increases, the impact on Earth’s habitability could be catastrophic. In a recent study, a team of scientists examined how temperature increases are a long-term issue facing advanced civilizations and not just a matter of fossil fuel consumption. As they argue, rising planetary temperatures could be an inevitable result of the exponential growth of energy consumption. Their findings could have serious implications for astrobiology and the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI).

The study was conducted by Amedeo Balbi, an Associate Professor of Astronomy and Astrophysics at the Universita di Roma Tor Vergata, and Manasvi Lingam, an Assistant Professor with the Department of Aerospace, Physics and Space Sciences and the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering at the Florida Institute of Technology (Florida Tech). The paper detailing their findings, “Waste Heat and Habitability: Constraints from Technological Energy Consumption,” recently appeared online and is being reviewed for publication in the journal Astrobiology.

This chart shows the meteorological summer (June, July, and August) temperature anomalies each year since 1880. Credit: NASA’s Earth Observatory/Lauren Dauphin

The idea that civilizations will eventually overheat their planet harkens back to the work of Soviet scientist Mikhail I. Budyko. In 1969, he published a groundbreaking study titled “The effect of solar radiation variations on the climate of the Earth,” where he argued that “All the energy used by man is transformed into heat, the main portion of this energy being an additional source of heat as compared to the present radiation gain. Simple calculations show that with the present rate of growth of using energy the heat produced by man in less than two hundred years will be comparable with the energy coming from the Sun.”

This is a simple consequence of all energy production and consumption invariably producing waste heat. While this waste heat is only a marginal contribution to global warming compared to carbon emissions, long-term projections indicate that this could change. As Lingam related to Universe Today via email:

“The current contribution of waste heat to a rise in global temperature is minimal. However, if waste heat production proceeds on an exponential trajectory for the next century, a further 1 degree Celsius (1.8 F) rise in temperature may stem from waste heat, independent of an enhanced greenhouse effect because of fossil fuels. If the waste heat generation maintains its exponential growth over centuries, we show that it can eventually lead to a complete loss of habitability and the demise of all life on Earth.”

The Dyson Sphere is a fitting example of waste heat resulting from the exponential growth of an advanced civilization. In his original proposal paper, “Search for Artificial Stellar Sources of Infrared Radiation,” Freeman Dyson argued how the need for more habitable space and energy could eventually drive a civilization to create an “artificial biosphere which completely surrounds its parent star.” As he described, these megastructures would be detectable to infrared instruments due to the “large-scale conversion of starlight into far-infrared radiation,” meaning they would radiate waste heat to space.

“The heating we explore in our paper results from the conversion of any form of energy and is an unavoidable consequence of the laws of thermodynamics,” added Balbi, who was the study’s lead author. “For present-day Earth, this heating represents only a negligible fraction of the warming caused by the anthropogenic greenhouse effect. However, if global energy consumption continues to grow at its current rate, this effect could become significant within a few centuries, potentially impacting Earth’s habitability.”

To determine how long it would take for advanced civilizations to reach the point where they would render their home planet uninhabitable, Balbi and Lingam crafted theoretical models based on the Second Law of thermodynamics (as it applies to energy production). They then applied this to planetary habitability by considering the circumsolar habitable zone (CHZ) – i.e., the orbits where a planet would receive sufficient solar radiation to maintain liquid water on its surface.

“We adapted the calculation of the habitable zone, a standard tool in exoplanetary studies. Essentially, we incorporated an additional source of heating—stemming from technological activity—alongside the stellar irradiation,” said Balbi. Another key factor they considered is the exponential growth rates of civilizations and their energy consumption, as predicted by the Kardashev Scale. Using humanity as a template, we see that global energy consumption rates went from 5,653 terawatt-hours (TWh) to 183,230 TWh between 1800 and 2023.

This trend was not only exponential but accelerated over time, similar to population growth in the same period (1 billion in 1800 to 8 billion in 2023). Balbi and Lingam extrapolated this trend to measure the implications for habitability and determine the maximum lifespan of an advanced civilization once it has entered a period of exponential growth. Ultimately, they concluded that the maximum lifetime of technospheres is about 1000 years, provided that they experience an annual growth rate of about 1% throughout the period of interest.

Humanity’s energy consumption has experienced accelerated and exponential growth in the past two centuries. Credit: OurWorldInData.org/Energy Institute – Statistical Review of World Energy (2024)

These findings, said Balbi, have implications for humanity and in the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI):

“Our results indicate that the effect of waste heat could become substantial not only in Earth’s future but also in the development of any hypothetical technological species inhabiting planets around other stars. Consequently, considering this constraint could influence how we approach the search for technologically advanced life in the universe and how we interpret the outcomes of such searches. For instance, it may offer a partial explanation for the Fermi paradox.”

Balbi and Lingam also stress how these results present some possible recommendations for how we could avoid rendering our planet uninhabitable. Once again, there are implications for SETI since any solution we can envision is likely to have already been implemented by another advanced species. Said Balbi:

“Although our paper focuses on physics rather than solutions to societal challenges, we envision a few scenarios that could help a technological species mitigate the constraints of waste heating and delay its onset. A sufficiently advanced civilization might use technology to counteract heating, such as employing stellar shielding.”

“Alternatively, they could relocate much of their technological infrastructure off-world, moving into space. Such mega-engineering projects would have significant implications for our search for technosignatures. A less ambitious but perhaps more feasible approach would be to reduce energy consumption by slowing growth. Of course, we cannot predict which of these options is the most plausible.”

Further Reading: arXiv

The post Advanced Civilizations Will Overheat Their Planets Within 1,000 Years appeared first on Universe Today.

Today we have Part One of reader Chris Taylor’s photos from Queensland. His captions are indented, and you can enlarge the photos by clicking on them.

After having been unable to travel for the last five years, I was at last able to get away again, so my partner and I decided to escape the cold of Canberra’s winter and travel up to tropical North Queensland. We had arranged to go out to the Bush Heritage Australia reserve at Yourka again, but before going there we had some time to visit the rainforest near the coast. After flying in to Cairns, we drove up to our first campsite in Mossman.

Above the town, the pristine Mossman River flows through a steep sided gorge.

The rainforest here is said to be the oldest on earth. Many ancient plant families are preserved here, including cycads, ferns and primitive conifers. We had a couple of short walks along the paths into the rainforest.

Our campground was on the banks of the Mossman River. A sign in the site was slightly alarming!

I’m not sure how often the crocodiles get up into the town.

But a few days later we travelled the few kilometres further north to the Daintree River, and there were plenty of crocodiles to be seen. There are two species of crocodile found in Australia, the smaller Freshwater Crocodile, and the larger Saltwater species.

This is a Saltwater Crocodile, Crocodylus porosus:

On the Daintree River, a dominant male will rule a territory of many kilometres of the river, and will keep a harem of females. The male will also tolerate a number of juvenile males until they are three or four years old, at which time they will be driven out of the area. Once fully grown they may return to the river to challenge the resident male for his territory and females.

This is a young male. He was only about 2.5m in length.

This is a female of breeding age. She is regulating her body temperature by entering the water, and gaping her mouth to the wind. There are many blood vessels in the roof of the mouth and this cools the blood going to her brain.

There is some concern in Queensland that climate change is having a big adverse effect on the crocodiles. The sex of the hatchling is determined by the temperature:  less than 32oC produces males, but over 34oC the litter is predominantly female. This warming, together with the effects of the flooding caused by Tropical Cyclone Jasper, has led to no young crocodiles surviving in the Daintree for two years.

We also saw the dominant male of this part of the river, a 5m long, 500kg animal known as Scarface.

He is thought to be at least 70 years old, and carries witness to many fights he has had to retain his kingdom. He has lost most if not all of his teeth, but is still able to feed, often on carrion that is carried down the river.

Lining the river banks are stands of Mangrove trees of different species. Here the mangroves are combining to form an island in the river. There are three different forms that the roots take to enable the tree to live in the brackish water.  All three can be seen in this picture.  Most obvious is the prop or stilt root system, where many roots branch off from the trunk of the tree and spread out to form a strong supporting network.  Then there are some that have Buttress roots flaring out from the trunk. These sometimes bend up above the surface before returning to the mud, and are called knee roots. Lastly there are the roots that stick up pencil-like structures known as pneumatophores. All of these are mechanisms that help the plant to regulate oxygen, salt and water intake and removal, and all help to stabilise the mud around the plant, as well as providing a habitat for fish and invertebrates to breed.

In amongst the mangroves were other creatures. This is a Little Pied Cormorant, Microcarbo melanoleucos, a very common bird around Australia.

Further upstream in one of mangroves was a Scrub Python, Simalia kinghorni:

This is Australia’s largest snake, growing to 5m and 20kg., but it is quite at home in the trees. It was resting in the sun when we first encountered it, but soon began to move around in the tree tops. This one was probably approaching the 3m mark. It was fascinating to see how it was able to span the gaps in the branches.

Back at Daintree we saw this White-Lipped Tree Frog, Litoria infrafrenata. This is the largest tree frog in the world. There are other larger frogs but these are unable to climb:

Back at Mossman, we photographed a Giant Orb Weaving spider, Nephila pilipes. This individual had a span across her legs of about 150mm, and a body of 25mm. Her web was rather more that 1m across!

Also in the campground were a number of Orange-footed Scrub Fowl, Megapodius reinwardt. These birds belong to the Megapodidae, along with the Brush Turkey that I will describe later:

There were also Olive-backed Sunbirds, Cinnyris jugularis, flying around the site. This one is a female emerging from the hanging nest made from woven grasses fibres and bark. It is the female who does most of the work of raising the two eggs laid in the nest:

There was also a spectacular display of Red Jade Vine, Mucuna bennettii. Introduced into Australia, this member of the Legume family is a native of Papua New Guinea:

Returning to Cairns for a night we were able to go for a swim in a nearby rainforest stream at the (crocodile free) Crystal Cascades:

Next morning, while waiting to board the bus to Atherton, we went to a café for breakfast. A cheeky Willie Wagtail, Rhipidura leucophrys, decided to join us in the hope of getting crumbs of food from the table.

Continued in Part 2.

 

Quickie with Steve: Minimoon; News Items: Dead Internet Theory, Classroom CRISPR, CAM Market, ADHD Increasing; Who's That Noisy; Your Questions and E-mails: Changing Names, Net Metering and Residential Solar; Science or Fiction

Black holes often appear in science fiction movies, largely because elements of their existence are still a mystery. They have fascinating impacts on the surrounding region of space too with distortions in space and time high on the list. A team of astronomers have found a supermassive black hole with twin jets blasting out an incredible 23 million light years, the longest yet. To put this into context, if you lined up 140 Milky Way galaxies side by side, then that’s the length of the jet! 

The presence of mass in the Universe distorts space-time in its vicinity and the more massive, the greater the distortion. Black holes are regions where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light can escape. They form when a massive star runs out of fuel in the core and collapses under its own gravity. The process creates a point of infinite density known as a singularity. Surrounding the singularity at a distance that depends on the properties of the progenitor star, is the event horizon. If matter of any sort, even a passing spacecraft, gets dragged in through the event horizon then it is never able to escape. 

After the death of a massive, spinning star, a disk of material forms around the central black hole. As the material cools and falls into the black hole, new research suggests that detectable gravitational waves are created. Ore Gottlieb

One of the properties of a black hole are powerful jets, high speed streams of particles ejected from the regions around a black hole. The material ejected never quite reaches the event horizon but instead has been ejected from within the accretion disk. The magnetic fields of a black hole and the rotation of the disks of heated gas and dust can launch jets from the polar regions. They can travel at speeds near the speed of light and can shoot across thousands and millions of kilometres of space. The exact mechanisms of the jets are still not well understood. 

Astronomers observing with LOFAR (the Low Frequency Array) radio system spotted a jet so massive that its the equivalent of 140 Milky Way galaxies lined up side by side! For comparison the jet emanating from Centaurus A at the centre of our Galaxy spans about 10 Milky Way’s! It’s been nicknamed Porphyrion after the mythological giant in Greek culture. Dating back to a time when the universe was 6.3 billion years old, the jet has been found to be producing power equivalent to trillions of Suns!

The LOFAR ‘superterp’, part of the core of the extended telescope located in the Netherlands. Credit: LOFAR/ASTRON

The team that have studied the jet suggest that if giant jets like this were common in the early universe then they may well have been an influential force in the formation of galaxies. Modern jets seen in the nearby universe (and therefore at a later era in the evolution of the universe) seem to be much smaller by comparison. The conclusion is that perhaps the giant jets would have connected and fed energy and material to other nearby galaxies, driving their evolution. 

The survey undertaken by LOFAR revealed more than 10,000 of these megajets. Previous studies revealed only a few hundred large jets suggesting they were more rare but this latest research shows otherwise. It was a real labour of love though as the team searched radio images by eye, used machine-learning tools to scan the images and even enlisted citizen scientists around the world to help. Their paper was published in the Astronomy and Astrophysical journal. 

What of Porphyrion? The team followed up with observations with the Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope in Kitt Peak and the W. M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii to reveal the host galaxy 7.5 billion light years away. 

Source : Gargantuan Black Hole Jets Are Biggest Seen Yet

The post Astronomers Find the Longest Black Hole Jets Ever Seen appeared first on Universe Today.

I think some respected newspapers could do a better job of being honest with their readers about some pretty basic and pretty important things.

The post Open Letter to Pamela Paul of the New York Times: Watch Some Interviews With Dr. Marty Makary. They Are More Important Than Peanut Allergies. first appeared on Science-Based Medicine.

Global internet access does seem like a worthy enterprise yet the rise of satellite megaconstellations there is a danger of the night sky becoming ruined. Astronomers the world over are keeping an eye on the impact these satellites are having on the night sky. Until recently the concerns have been relating to the reflection of visible light against the sky hindering night time observations. A recent study shows that the second-generation Starlink satellites leak 32 times the radio signal than the previous models. Are their presence putting at risk the radio sky now too?

The starlink satellites are the brainchild of SpaceX to provide high-speed broadband internet to every corner of the planet. The constellation of satellites consists of thousands of small satellites measuring just 2.8 metre in length. They form a network that can transmit data quickly around the planet offering high speed internet which is far more reliable than traditional satellite systems. The goal is to provide high speed connectivity to places where fibre or traditional infrastructure is difficult or too costly. As it expands though there will be more and more satellites in orbit. 

An artist’s conception shows Starlink satellites in orbit. Credit: SpaceX

It’s not just SpaceX that is causing the problem though. Since 2019 other companies have been getting in on the act with organisations like OneWeb too having launched hundreds of thousands of satellites. The plan is for organisations like these to launch in excess of 100,000 satellites. If the rise in megaconstellations like these rise then the emissions (visible, radio or otherwise) could very easily make astronomical observations from the surface of Earth difficult if not impossible.

During the last year, observations with the Low Frequency Array (LOFAR) revealed that the Starlink satellites were emitting radio waves. Astronomers were concerned that the unintentional waves could have a negative impact on radio observations. As SpaceX expand their network with a second generation of satellites, their ‘V2-mini’ modules the risks seem to be increasing. New LOFAR observations have shown that the new satellites are producing up to 32 times more radio emissions than the earlier satellites! Anyone observing the universe in radio waves at the time of their passing is likely to receive a blinding radio signal that would ruin any observations. 

The LOFAR ‘superterp’, part of the core of the extended telescope located in the Netherlands. Credit: LOFAR/ASTRON

Putting the radio emissions into context, the new satellites are emitting radio waves 10 million times brighter than that detected by the faintest astronomical object detected by LOFAR so far! The discovery highlights the need for control and regulations around satellites and their emissions, intended or otherwise. Left unchecked then the future of astronomical observations will be highly compromised.

ASTRON operates LOFAR which is one of the most sensitive low frequency telescopes in the world. It’s only possible because it operates from the Netherlands which is one of the most densely populated countries in Europe. Despite the high population density, the national organisations of Netherlands co-operate and consult with ASTRON to safeguard the future of radio astronomy. We just need other organisations like SpaceX and OneWeb to jump on board to ensure our view of the universe isn’t lost for ever. 

Source : Second-Generation Starlink Satellites Leak 30 Times More Radio Interference, Threatening Astronomical Observations

The post Second Generation Starlinks are 32 Times Brighter in Radio Wavelengths appeared first on Universe Today.

A new covid-19 variant called XEC may spread more easily than past variants, but current vaccines are still effective against it

When you look at the Moon, you don’t see any water on its surface. That doesn’t mean there isn’t any. In fact, there’s a lot of “wetness” on the Moon, but it’s in places and forms we can’t see. Understanding where all those resources are is the subject of a study based on NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) data taken from aboard the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft.

The analysis performed by a team led by Planetary Science Institute senior scientist Roger Clark shows that there are many sources of water and a group of chemicals called “hydroxyls” (OH). Water lies hidden in ice deposits in shaded areas, and inside enriched rocks.

Image showing the distribution of surface ice (which could supply water) at the Moon’s south pole (left) and north pole (right), detected by NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper instrument. Credits: NASA

Hydroxyls are interesting. They form as solar protons interact with electrons on the Moon’s surface. That creates hydrogen atoms which hook up with oxygen atoms found in silicates and other oxygen-bearing molecules in the lunar regolith. Together, the hydrogen and oxygen make hydroxyl molecules, which are a component of water. While it would take some work, mining those “raw materials” for water on the Moon could be a huge boost for future crewed missions, according to Clark.

“Future astronauts may be able to find water even near the equator by exploiting these water-rich areas. Previously, it was thought that only the polar region, and in particular, the deeply shadowed craters at the poles were where water could be found in abundance,” said Clark. “Knowing where water is located not only helps to understand lunar geologic history but also where astronauts may find water in the future.”

How They Identified Lunar Water Sources

Searching out sources of lunar water requires special instruments. This is where the Chandrayaan mission and NASA’s mineralogy mapper data came in handy. Clark and his team zeroed in on a set of data taken by the lander’s imaging spectrometer from 2008-2009. This infrared spectroscopy data contains the spectral fingerprints of both water and hydroxyl in sunlight reflected from the Moon’s surface. The M3 instrument dissected the light into 85 different visible and infrared “colors”. That’s how they were able to spot the distinctive hints of water and hydroxyls across much of the Moon.

The team also looked at the location and geologic contexts of water and hydroxyl distribution. They also had to take into account the “lifetime” of these resources on the Moon. Interestingly, water gets slowly destroyed over time. Hydroxyl, however, lasts much longer. So, for example, if a crater smacks into the lunar surface, the “wet” rocks it “digs up” will lose that content over time through the action of the solar wind. The result is a diffuse layer or “aura” of hydroxyls that remain behind. In other places, solar wind protons that collide with the surface contribute to a thin layer or “patina” of hydroxyls on the surface. The hydroxyls last much longer and exist on the Moon up to millions of years.

“Putting all the evidence together, we see a lunar surface with complex geology with significant water in the sub-surface and a surface layer of hydroxyl. Both cratering and volcanic activity bring water-rich materials to the surface, and both are observed in the lunar data,” Clark said.

Near-infrared image of the Moon’s surface by NASA’s Moon Mineralogy Mapper on the Indian Space Research Organization’s Chandrayaan-1 mission. The mapper helped identify water- and hydroxyl-rich areas on the lunar surface. Image credit: ISRO/NASA/JPL-Caltech/Brown Univ./USGS Using Precious Lunar Resources

Lunar rocks may well help supply water to future visitors to the Moon. There are two kinds of rocks there. The dark mare rocks are mainly basaltic (like Hawaiian lava). The other type is the anorthosite rock. It exists in various places, including the lunar highlands. The anorthosites are relatively “wet” while the basalts remain very dry. The two rock types also contain hydroxyls bonded to different minerals.

The water-rich anorthosites should be a target for harvesting by lunar astronauts. To get a good supply, you have to heat the rocks and soils. The result of that process could be a long-lasting water supply. You could also get it by using methods to create chemical reactions that liberate hydroxyl and combine four hydroxyls to create oxygen and water.

Of course, a more immediate source lies at the poles. That’s where ice lies hidden inside shaded crater walls or under the surface, preserved for millions of years. That source is likely more easily harvested, but you still have to transport the water to other lunar regions. The downsides of getting water from rocks are the expense and the energy required to heat them for extraction. NASA and other agencies (such as the Chinese space agency) are looking at all the methods of producing supplies for upcoming missions. Studying the locations of ice deposits and hydroxyls is just one part of a larger “search for water” that will benefit future lunar bases.

For More Information

Sources of Water and Hydroxyl are Widespread on the Moon
The Global Distribution of Water and Hydroxyl on the Moon as Seen by the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3)

The post There’s Water All Over the Moon appeared first on Universe Today.

Lasso peptides are natural products made by bacteria. Their unusual lasso shape endows them with remarkable stability, protecting them from extreme conditions. In a new study, researchers have constructed and tested models for how these peptides are made and demonstrated how this information might be used to advance lasso peptide-based drugs into the clinic.

A research team has developed a computational workflow for analyzing large data sets in the field of metabolomics, the study of small molecules found within cells, biofluids, tissues, and entire ecosystems.

NASA’s Juno spacecraft was sent to Jupiter to study the gas giant. But its mission was extended, giving it an opportunity to study the unique moon Io. Io is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System, with over 400 active volcanoes.

Researchers have taken advantage of Juno’s flybys of Io to study how tidal heating affects the moon.

In recent months, Juno performed several flybys of Io, culminating in one that brought the spacecraft to within 1500 km of the surface. This gave Juno unprecedented close-up views of the volcanic moon. One of its instruments, the Jovian Infrared Auroral Mapper (JIRAM), is an infrared spectrometer, and its data is at the heart of new research into Io’s volcanic activity and how tidal heating drives it.

The new research letter, “JIRAM Observations of Volcanic Flux on Io: Distribution and Comparison to Tidal Heat Flow Models,” was published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters. Madeline Pettine, a doctoral student in astronomy at Cornell University, is the lead author.

Though Io is dead, the tidal heating that keeps it warm could contribute to habitability elsewhere.

“Studying the inhospitable landscape of Io’s volcanoes actually inspires science to look for life,” said lead author Pettine.

“It’s easier to study tidal heating on a volcanic world rather than peering through a kilometers-thick ice shell that’s keeping the heat covered up.”

Madeline Pettine, Cornell University

Io is one of the four Galilean moons. The other three, Callisto, Ganymede, and Europa, are all suspected of having liquid oceans under frozen layers of surface ice. If these oceans truly exist, they could potentially support life. Jupiter’s tidal heating provides the heat to keep those oceans warm. Io is valuable scientifically because we can witness the effects of tidal heating on its surface.

Juno isn’t the only spacecraft to have visited Jupiter’s moon Io. This global view of Io was obtained during the tenth orbit of Jupiter by NASA’s Galileo spacecraft. It’s a false colour image that highlights differences on Io’s surface. Image Credit: NASA

“Tidal heating plays an important role in the heating and orbital evolution of celestial bodies,” said co-author Alex Hayes, the Jennifer and Albert Sohn Professor of Astronomy in the College of Arts and Sciences at Cornell. “It provides the warmth necessary to form and sustain subsurface oceans in the moons around giant planets like Jupiter and Saturn.”

Io’s volcanoes aren’t distributed evenly on its surface. The majority of them are in the equatorial region. However, in this work, the researchers found that the volcanoes on Io’s poles may act to regulate the moon’s interior temperature.

“I’m trying to match the pattern of volcanoes on Io and the heat flow that they’re producing with the heat flow we expected from theoretical models,” said Pettine.

Jupiter is the most massive planet in the Solar System and its gravitational pull is second only to the Sun’s. Jupiter’s powerful gravity does more than dictate Io’s orbit. It warps the moon and forces it to deform, generating heat.

This simple schematic shows how a planet can create tidal heating on an orbiting moon. The stretching and heating are most extreme when the moon is at its pericenter, the closest distance to the planet. Image Credit: Caltech.

“The gravity from Jupiter is incredibly strong,” Pettine said. “Considering the gravitational interactions with the large planet’s other moons, Io ends up getting bullied, constantly stretched and scrunched up. With that tidal deformation, it creates a lot of internal heat within the moon.”

Io has no ocean, so the heat melts rock, creating a likely magma ocean inside the moon. That magma works its way up through the surface, erupting as volcanoes and lava flows. The gases from the magma colour the surface of the moon in reds, yellows, and browns.  

To understand what’s happening inside Io, Pettine and her colleagues worked with a mathematical equation called spherical harmonic decomposition. This equation allows scientists to analyze data from a spherical surface and break it down, revealing patterns and important features.

Previous research shows that most of Io’s volcanic activity is in its equatorial region, although some volcanoes have been detected on its poles. In this work, it revealed systems of bright volcanoes at high latitudes.

“Our observations confirm previously detected systems of bright volcanoes at high latitudes,” the authors write. “While our map agrees with previous studies that suggest that low?to mid?latitude areas see the highest areas of volcanic activity, our map suggests that the poles of Io are comparably active to the equator.”

This figure’s perspective shows the sub-Jovian, north-polar view of Io in the left column and the anti-Jovian, south-polar view of Io in the right column. The topmost row shows the coverage map achieved for JIRAM during this study. The second row is a global map of volcanic flux. The hot spot in the north polar region is clear. Image Credit: Pettine et al. 2024.

Pettine and her co-researchers compared their global heat flux maps with three different models that attempt to explain what’s going under Io’s surface: the Deep Mantle model, the Asthenospheric model, and the Global Magma model.

The Deep Mantle Model says that tidal heating keeps a large portion of the mantle in a molten state. The Asthenospheric Model says that less of the mantle is molten and that only the asthenosphere is in a molten state due to tidal heating. This is more similar to Earth. The Global Magma Ocean model is a more extreme interpretation of the data and says that a greater portion of Io’s interior is molten, perhaps extending from just below the surface to greater depths.

This figure shows what Io’s surface heat flux should look like for three different interior models. Image Credit: Pettine et al. 2024.

The researchers also created a complete global map of heat flux produced by volcanic hot spots. “Viewing this flux on both a linear and a logarithmic scale better illustrates individual volcanic behaviour and global heat flow variations, particularly the lowest-flux regions,” the authors write.

“Our study finds that both poles are comparably active and that the observed flux distribution is inconsistent with an asthenospheric heating model, although the south pole is viewed too infrequently to establish reliable trends,” the authors explain.

These global volcanic flux maps show the average flux in milliwatts per square meter. The top is on a linear scale, while the bottom is on a logarithmic colour scale. The coloured bars and the line plots beside each map show the average flux projected horizontally (to the right of each map) and the average flux projected vertically (below each map) to show trends in flux by latitude and longitude. Image Credit: Pettine et al. 2024.

The researchers say that their heat flux maps don’t favour any of the models. “Using spherical decomposition, we find that the distribution of flux is much more uniform than in-line with any of the models,” they write.

For now, a more complete understanding of Io’s tidal heating and volcanic activity is elusive. Juno’s JIRAM observations are just a snapshot of the moon. Over longer time periods, the heat maps will look different and may support different models and conclusions.

“I’m not solving tidal heating with this one paper,” said Pettine. “However, if you think about icy moons in the outer solar system, other moons like Jupiter’s Europa, or Saturn’s Titan and Enceladus, they’re the places that if we’re going to find life in the solar system, it will be one of those places.”

A better understanding of tidal heating will do more than explain aspects of our own Solar System. It may help us understand habitable zones in other solar systems and how exomoons might be heated by giant exoplanets.

Artist’s illustration of a large exomoon orbiting a large exoplanet. While we have no way of observing exomoons, that day will come soon enough. A better understanding of tidal heating will help us understand what we will see. Image Credit: NASA/ESA/L. Hustak

That’s why, although Jupiter’s icy moons are prime targets for exploration, with two missions heading to study Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto, we need to keep a scientific eye on Io.

“We need to know how the heat is being generated,” Pettine said. “It’s easier to study tidal heating on a volcanic world rather than peering through a kilometers-thick ice shell that’s keeping the heat covered up.”

The post Io’s Volcanoes are Windows into its Hot Interior appeared first on Universe Today.

A sprawling research program aims to improve hurricane forecasts by collecting data at the chaotic interface of ocean and atmosphere

Forest loss is thought to have played a part in record low rainfall across South America this year, in a sign that environmental destruction is accelerating climate collapse

Spintronic devices work with spin textures caused by quantum-physical interactions. Scientists have now studied graphene-cobalt-iridium heterostructures at BESSY II. The results show how two desired quantum-physical effects reinforce each other in these heterostructures. This could lead to new spintronic devices based on these materials.