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There’s something wrong with us.

We’ve risen to prominence on a world that’s positively “rippling with life,” as Carl Sagan described it. The more we study our planet, the more we find life eking out an existence in the most unlikely of places.

Yet we seem destined to drive many species to extinction, even though we see those extinctions coming from miles away.

As an indication of how serious the problem is, one group of researchers suggests we use the Moon—yes, the Moon—as a safe repository for Earth’s biodiversity.

The idea makes sense technically—samples of Earth life can be preserved cryogenically on the Moon—but it also sounds like something out of a Kurt Vonnegut novel. At first glance, it seems like an absurd proposal. However, as Camus explained, acknowledging absurdity is the starting point for genuine understanding.

Camus and Vonnegut are both dead, so it’s up to living scientists to prepare for the odious task of preventing a catastrophic reduction in Earth’s biodiversity. They’re taking it seriously.

In a new paper in the journal BioScience, a diverse group of scientists from the USA outline their plan. The paper is “Safeguarding Earth’s biodiversity by creating a lunar biorepository.” The first author is Mary Hagedorn, a Senior Research Cryobiologist at the Smithsonian National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute in Washington, DC.

“Earth’s biodiversity is increasingly threatened and at risk,” the authors write, shocking no one.

This graph shows extinction rates are rising along with the human population and industrial activity. Image Credit: Earth.org

Human activities are behind species extinction. “Because of myriad anthropogenic drivers, a high proportion of species and ecosystems face destabilization and extinction threats that are accelerating faster than our ability to save these species in their natural environment,” the authors write.

Their proposal is to build a biorepository on the Moon that can hold “prioritized taxa of live cryopreserved samples.” Not only would the biorepository protect Earth’s precious, wondrous biodiversity, but it would also serve space exploration and terraforming.

The researchers are in the initial stages of exploring the idea. They intend to test the cryopreservation of animal skin samples containing fibroblast cells. Fibroblasts are the main connective tissue cells in bodies, present in the skin, tendons, ligaments, blood vessels, and bones.

Fibroblasts are not stem cells, but they share some similarities with stem cells. They’re the only other type of cell that can regenerate tissues and organs and create copies of themselves. Fibroblasts are also used in regenerative medicine and tissue engineering. They’re widely used in research and are sometimes called the “workhorses” of cell culture.

Cryopreserved fibroblasts can stay frozen and alive for hundreds of years. Scientists are getting better at thawing cryopreserved materials to recover DNA and intact cells. They’re even able to thaw living organisms. In this 2018 research, coral larvae were cryopreserved, then warmed, and then resumed swimming. This 2023 research showed similar success. These efforts were both aimed at preserving Earth’s coral biodiversity. The scientific community is clearly concerned, and momentum is building.

“In the face of potential catastrophic ecosystem loss, such as coral reefs from climate-related warming, we propose the creation of a lunar biorepository to maintain samples in a cryopreserved state with little human intervention,” the authors of the new research write.

There’s nowhere on Earth with temperatures naturally low enough for cryopreservation. But the Moon is much different.

The authors point out that the Moon’s southern polar region is nearly ideal for a “hands-off” biorepository. In some craters there, the temperature is quite stable, with only small seasonal fluctuations. The temperature stays at or below -196 Celsius (-320 F), which is the temperature for liquid nitrogen and is considered the ideal temperature for cryopreservation.

This shaded relief image shows the Moon’s Shackleton Crater, a 21-km-wide crater permanently shadowed crater near the lunar south pole. The crater’s interior structure is shown in false colour based on data from NASA’s LRO probe. Like other craters in the region, Shackleton’s floor is in perpetual darkness, and the temperature is extremely low. Image Credit: NASA

The researchers envision a vault that could protect Earth’s most at-risk species. In the future, other plant and animal species will be added. “Our goal is to cryopreserve most animal species on Earth,” they write. A parallel goal is to preserve Earth species that can be used in future terraforming. “The biorepository could store biomaterials for food, filtration, microbial breakdown, and ecosystems engineering,” they explain.

There’s precedent for this type of thinking and this type of initiative: The Doomsday Vault.

In 2008, the Norwegian government opened the Svalbard Global Seed Vault. It’s a repository for seeds that protects crop diversity. It holds backup seeds preserved in other genebanks around the world. The vault has the capacity to store 4.5 million different seed samples, each holding up to 500 individual seeds. It is built into the side of a mountain on Spitsbergen Island in Norway’s Svalbard Archipelago. It maintains an ideal seed-preserving temperature of -18°C (-0.4°F). At only 1300 km from the North Pole, the site is kept cold in permafrost even if climate control fails.

The Svalbard Global Seed Vault has room to preserve 4.5 million types of seeds. Image Credit: Crop Trust.

The Lunar Biorepository isn’t the first proposal to protect Earth’s biodiversity on the Moon. In 2021, researchers proposed the Lunar Ark, a facility in lunar lava tubes that could preserve the seeds, sperms, eggs, and DNA of endangered Earth life. But lunar lava tubes aren’t naturally as cold as polar craters, and the idea relies on solar power for energy. That means it’s susceptible to failure.

But at the naturally cold temperatures at the lunar pole, power failure isn’t an issue.

Initially, the Lunar Biorepository would hold endangered animal taxa. After that, it would need to expand and include plants since they’re critical to rebuilding ecosystems.

This list from the research shows what samples would be included initially in the Lunar Biorepository. Image Credit: Hagedorn et al. 2024.

The researchers are starting by developing an exemplar system to extract and cryopreserve tissue from the Starry Goby, a fish native to Hawaii. Previous researchers have shown that the species responds well to cryopreservation.

“Our vision is that these fibroblasts would be distributed into a variety of space-hardy cryopackaging and tested under space-like conditions on Earth. Candidate packaging for the cells would be tested next on the ISS,” the researchers state.

This graphic from the study shows the proposed process. Fins and DNA samples are collected from Starry Gobies, and cells can be either stored or expanded into fibroblasts. The fibroblasts can be cryopreserved and stored at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, where they can be preserved for decades or longer. Then, they can be expanded into fibroblasts and cryopreserved again and tested on Earth again. The samples can then be sent to the ISS or its successor one day for testing, then returned to Earth again to test the system’s viability and to look for DNA changes. Image Credit: Hagedorn et al. 2024.

The Lunar Repository could offer protection that goes beyond the scientific. By virtue of its remote lunar location, it’s protected from Earthly climate disasters and natural disasters like Earthquakes. Human affairs can also be extremely messy and catastrophic, and in a deep crater at the lunar south pole, the repository would be isolated from political upheaval or war.

The authors recognize the many challenges involved, mostly technical. But the endeavour is a long-term one, so there’s time to solve problems.

“This is a decades-long program,” the authors write. “Realizing a lunar biorepository will require collaboration by a broad array of nations, cultural groups, agencies, and international stakeholders to develop acceptable sample holding, governance, and long-term plans.”

But the Moon is attracting a lot of attention and effort, and this project can be an important part of it all.

“Protecting Earth’s life must be a top priority,” they conclude.

The post Scientists Want to Use the Moon to Safeguard Earth’s Biodiversity appeared first on Universe Today.

Turning around and backing up out of pools found in tree hollows may help mating Charles Darwin’s frogs find a safe place to lay their eggs while fending off competitive males

Antarctica’s melting ice sheet is relieving pressure on the land beneath, allowing it to push upwards in a way that could slow sea level rise in coming centuries – but only if greenhouse gas emissions are low

Scientists say they have identified the main process that formed the moon's atmosphere and continues to sustain it today. The team reports that the lunar atmosphere is primarily a product of 'impact vaporization.'

As I’ve said a few times, I’m leaving tomorrow for South Africa, where I’ll spend a month traveling about and seeing the animals. Matthew has agreed to post the Hili dialogue (short form) every day, so there will be at least something to see. And I will post as often as practicable when it doesn’t interfere with my planned activities.

In the meantime, Matthew might initiate a discussion thread, but there will be no readers’ wildlife or Caturday felids until I return. I’ll ask readers that if you have post-worthy wildlife photos, please hold onto them until early September.

A bit of news: Botany Pond is nearly done with construction, though landscaping has yet to come. There will be ducks next year!

In the meantime, best wishes to all and you’ll hear from me when I’m in Africa (and maybe before).

Short-lived neutron stars may explain both the extreme magnetic fields of black holes and gamma ray bursts, the most powerful explosions in the universe

After Claudine Gay’s deep-sixing as Harvard’s President, Alan Garber, trained as a physician, was asked to serve as interim President until the Harvard Corporation could find a replacement. He took office on January 2 of this year, and has been holding down the fort.  I had assumed the search would be fairly rapid, but alumni just got this message from a Corporation member, Penny Pritzker (she’s also the sister of Illinois’ governor, J. B. Pritzker, touted as one candidate for Democratic VP).

It notes that Garber is staying on for another three years, ending his tenure in the summer of 2027. I’m not sure what this means other than that an obvious candidate didn’t present themselves or that selected people turned down the position. (The salary and prestige are high, but so are the risks.) At any rate, Here are the beginning and end of Pritzker’s email. Note that he is now called the President and not Interim President, though in effect he is interim as they say the search is proceeding. What’s strange is that the search isn’t going to begin for two years.

Dear Members of the Harvard Community,

Following a meeting of the governing boards earlier today, my colleagues and I are very pleased to let you know that Alan Garber, our interim president since January, will serve as president of the University through the end of the 2026-27 academic year. We plan to launch a full-scale search for his eventual successor in the late spring or summer of 2026.

After serving with distinction as Harvard’s provost for more than twelve years, Alan has done an outstanding job leading Harvard through extraordinary challenges since taking on his interim presidential duties seven months ago. We have asked him to hold the title of president, not just interim president, both to recognize his distinguished service to the University and to underscore our belief that this is a time not merely for steady stewardship but for active, engaged leadership.

. . . . Alan’s talents and experience position him well to guide us in this vital work. Along with my colleagues on the governing boards, I hope you will offer him your concerted support, and I thank all of you—faculty, students, staff, alumni, and friends—for all you do for Harvard.

Sincerely,
Penny Pritzker
Senior Fellow, Harvard Corporation

Why does the universe contain matter and (virtually) no antimatter? Scientists have achieved an experimental breakthrough in this context. It can contribute to measuring the mass and magnetic moment of antiprotons more precisely than ever before -- and thus identify possible matter-antimatter asymmetries. They have developed a trap, which can cool individual antiprotons much more rapidly than in the past.

Why does the universe contain matter and (virtually) no antimatter? Scientists have achieved an experimental breakthrough in this context. It can contribute to measuring the mass and magnetic moment of antiprotons more precisely than ever before -- and thus identify possible matter-antimatter asymmetries. They have developed a trap, which can cool individual antiprotons much more rapidly than in the past.

A team has developed a new way to 3D print material that is at once elastic enough to withstand a heart's persistent beating, tough enough to endure the crushing load placed on joints, and easily shapable to fit a patient's unique defects.

Researchers have unveiled a new loop heat pipe capable of transporting up to 10 kW of heat without using electric power. The loop heat pipe's design aims to contribute to energy savings and carbon neutrality in various fields, including waste heat recovery, solar heat utilization, electric vehicle thermal management, and data center cooling.

Physicists have discovered two new ways to improve organic semiconductors. They found a way to remove more electrons from the material than previously possible and used unexpected properties in an environment known as the non-equilibrium state, boosting its performance for use in electronic devices.

Physicists have discovered two new ways to improve organic semiconductors. They found a way to remove more electrons from the material than previously possible and used unexpected properties in an environment known as the non-equilibrium state, boosting its performance for use in electronic devices.

Eye-tracking allows studying aspects that cannot be seen, for example, the thinking processes of a student solving a mathematical problem. Researchers have integrated eye-tracking into education and are using the technology to radically improve the teaching of mathematics.

Researchers investigated the environmental costs of AI, including energy consumption of AI systems in the medical field, carbon emissions of data centers, and electronic waste issues. Specific solutions to mitigate these environmental impacts were discussed, including the development of energy-efficient AI models, the implementation of green computing, and the use of renewable energy.

Researchers have discovered a new correlation between neural signaling in the brain and dopamine signaling in the striatum. The human brain requires fast neural signal processing in a short period of less than a second. Dopamine is known to have the strongest effect on brain neural signals, but the research team's newly developed 'optical neural chip-based multiple brain signal monitoring technology' shows that changes in dopamine signals within the physiological range do not affect brain neural signal processing.

Researchers have developed new real-time microscopy technology and successfully observed the behavior of 'motor proteins', which may hold the key to unraveling the efficient material transport strategy of cells.

Although previous studies have found hydrogen and oxygen in moon minerals – implying the presence of water – whole molecules of H2O have never been detected in lunar rock until now

There was a bit of confusion yesterday involving my post about the defeat of Italian female boxer Angela Carini by Algerian boxer Imane Khelif, who in all likelihood is male but identifies as female. The bout was over in 42 seconds after Khelif delivered a few powerful blows to Carini’s head. She then refused to shake hands with Khelif, cried, and then explained that she was fighting for her late father (she later apologized for the unsportswomanlike gesture of not congratulating her opponent).  Most of the videos that accompanied the tweets have been taken down by the Olympics for copyright reasons, but I found one on Emma Hilton’s site:

The IOC need to held accountable for this. https://t.co/gVaiZukxch

— Emma Hilton (@FondOfBeetles) August 1, 2024

The first thing I’d like to clear up is my use of the word “transwoman” to refer to Khelif. I meant it to refer to the big brouhaha in sport and gender, which refers to the contested presence of genuine transwomen (i.e., natal males who transition to a female gender identity) competing against women in women’s sports. I kept using the term when applying it to Khelif, but Khelif may indeed have assumed that he/she was a biological female since birth, since Khelif was raised as a female from birth in Algeria.  If that’s the case, then Khelif didn’t really “transition”.  If you use the “trans” term loosely, I suppose you could say that Khelif transitioned from the biological condition of being a male to having the identity of a woman, but since this wouldn’t have been a conscious transition, I thus gladly retract the use of the term “transwomen” for Khelif.  One could, I suppose, call Khelif an “intersex” person, but those afflicted with disorders of sex development (DSDs) prefer the term “person with a disorder of sex development”. Also, definitions of “intersex” vary among researchers.

But that’s a semantic issue. The main question is this: was Khelif a biological male, went though male puberty, and then wound up with the strength, size, speed, and punch-strength advantages that go along with male puberty—advantages that do not go away fully even with testosterone-suppression?  All evidence points to “yes”, and my judgment was based on the fact that Khelif had an XY karyotype, the physical appearance and size of a man, and had previously failed testosterone tests and, on that basis, was denied the opportunity to box women.

Now the only way to ascertain for sure what Khelif’s sex was is to do an ultrasound or some kind of noninvasive examination to see if there are ovaries (making a female) or testes (making a male) or both (making a very rare hermaphrodite).  This hasn’t been done, but the conclusion of those with more expertise than I is that it’s probable that Khelif was a biological male with a DSD and had gone through male puberty, thus having the same advantage against biological women as either a transwoman or, in Khelif’s case, a male afflicted with a DSD who has suppressed his testosterone. If this is the case, the Olympics screwed up in its last-minute method of determining whether an athlete can compete against biological women (the IOC has said that each sport should make its own rule). At the bottom I say what I would judge to be necessary and sufficient tests to determine whether a person is qualified to compete against biological women.

Let’s look at someone who knows the ins and outs of this: Carole Hooven of Harvard University, author of the well known book T: The Story of Testosterone, the Hormone that Dominates and Divides Us. There is a chapter on sports and gender, too.  It’s an excellent book and I recommend it highly.

Hooven issued a long tweet yesterday explaining Khelif’s likely condition. And yes, Khelif appears to be a male with a DSD. Go to the tweet to read the whole thing:

I could have sworn I included the graphs! Sorry. Here they are. pic.twitter.com/dLXqMaaMYK

— Carole Hooven (@hoovlet) August 1, 2024

Here’s an excerpt from the long tweet (my bolding). Note that it’s all about one particular DSD, suggesting that this is what Hooven thinks that Khelif has:

First: People living with DSDs should be treated with compassion and understanding, and receive any heath care they need. These can be challenging conditions for individuals and their families. But when male athletes have DSDs that give them an advantage over females, and they compete in the female category, this raises concerns about safety and fairness, and forces discussion of the relevant physical traits.

Athletes with XY DSDs who have testes (usually internal), XY sex chromosomes, male-typical levels of testosterone, and functional androgen receptors are often described as females with “hyperandrogenism,” i.e., abnormally high levels of testosterone. They experience physical benefits of this high testosterone during puberty, which translate into athletic advantages over females. The issue for sports is that athletes with the XY DSD 5-alpha reductase deficiency (5-ARD), may be socialized as female, may be legally female, and may live and identify as female; but they are male.

These individuals are usually born with female-appearing genitalia, which can lead to being sexed as female. Here’s why. 5-ARD is caused by a mutation in the gene that codes for the enzyme 5-alpha reductase, which converts testosterone into a more potent androgen, DHT. This androgen interacts with the androgen receptor, like testosterone, and is necessary for the typical development of male external genitalia (penis and scrotum) and the prostate. Without DHT, female-typical external genitalia develop. At the end of this monster post is a graphic of the relevant steroid production pathway, from my book T: The story of Testosterone.

DHT is also responsible for male-pattern baldness and dark, coarse facial hair, which is why people with the condition have smooth skin that can give a feminine appearance.

The “decision makers” are aware that athletes with 5-ARD are male, and that they experience the benefits of male puberty. The requirement to reduce their testosterone to typical female levels isn’t discriminatory, since these are males who are asking to compete in the female category. But more significantly, all the relevant scientific evidence shows that reducing male T in adulthood does not undo the physical benefits of male puberty.

And the relevant reference:

Here’s more detail about T, DHT, and male advantage in strength and speed.

I’ve been asked if men with the DSD 5-ARD (in which ppl cannot convert testosterone into the more potent androgen DHT) experience the typical benefits of male puberty, that would give them an advantage in strength and speed relative to women. This is relevant to questions about whether male athletes with 5-ARD should be allowed to compete in the female category. This is an excellent question, because it could be the case that DHT is necessary for the development and maintenance of male-typical muscle, lean body mass and strength. If that were the case, then people with 5-ARD might not have a typical male advantage, because the lack of DHT would perhaps lead to a more feminine pattern of fat, lean body mass and strength. I’ve wondered about this myself and have looked into the evidence.

Perhaps the top researcher in this area, Shalendar Bhasin, who is scrupulous in his methods, has examined this very question. The answer appears to be: no, testosterone does not need to be converted to DHT to exert its typical anabolic effects. These findings are reported in his 2012 study, “Effect of Testosterone Supplementation With and Without a Dual 5α-Reductase Inhibitor on Fat-Free Mass in Men With Suppressed Testosterone Production, A Randomized Controlled Trial.” (It is linked to below—and since it’s paywalled, I’ve included the graphs that show comparisons between the placebo and DHT— inhibited conditions, with no difference on the various outcomes.)

The paper is actually free; click on the link below to go to it, and follow the link to “get pdf” or go to the pdf directly here:

The paper shows, as Hooven notes above, that this DSD has its normal effects on the body even though testosterone isn’t converted to the androgen DHT. In other words, 5-ARD males produce testosterone that, even though not converted to DHT, sill has its normal effects on masculinizing the body.

A bit on the condition from the National Library of Medicine:

The presentation of patients with a deficiency of 5α-RD2 can vary. This condition is an autosomal recessive disorder of sex development associated with the mutation in the SRD5A2 gene. No direct association has been seen between the phenotype and the genotype in this disorder. Two individuals with the same gene defects in SRD5A2 can present with completely different phenotypes. This shows that other additional genes probably control the phenotype and the gene under discussion.[8]

The newborns might have genitalia resembling labia majora, which would be unfused labioscrotal folds. The phallus in these children may look more like a clitoris than a penis.[9] At the same time, the internal genitalia in these children include seminal vesicles, epididymis, vas deferens, and ejaculatory duct, and one may not see any Mullerian structures. The testes in these children might be present in the inguinal sac, and very rarely, they can also be found within the abdomen. These children tend to be raised as females until puberty, when they start exhibiting virilization.[5] At puberty, the phallus may grossly enlarge to form a penis, the testes may descend into the unfused labioscrotal folds, the voice deepens, and a beard starts growing. The development of all these secondary sexual characteristics during puberty does not need the presence of DHT but only the presence of testosterone.[9]

Carole also gives a strong recommendation to this free podcast:

“Inclusivity” is given more weight than science, rationality, and fairness and safety for women. ⁦@Scienceofsport⁩ is right on. Give the most recent episode a listen. https://t.co/yY4Gjj37hL

— Carole Hooven (@hoovlet) August 1, 2024

So the questions that people are probably asking (my questions and my answers):

a.) Does Khelif have a DSD?  Almost certainly, since the chromosomes, testosterone levels, and physiognamy suggest that Khelif is a biological male, but the genitalia probably are female-like, although we don’t know for sure. At any rate, there was some phenotypic trait that caused Khelif to be raised as a female.

b.) Was the DSD XY DSD 5-alpha reductase deficiency (5-ARD)?  It’s likely since Hooven discusses it at length. This is in fact the same DSD that Caster Semenya had: according to the BBC:

The 2018 rules meant that Semenya could not compete in female track events over this distance without taking testosterone-reducing drugs.

She appealed against World Athletics’ proposal at the Switzerland-based Court of Arbitration for Sport (Cas), but eventually lost in what amounted to a landmark case in 2019.

It was in the Cas ruling that Semenya’s specific DSD was confirmed as 46 XY 5-ARD (5-alpha-reductase deficiency). People with this particular DSD have the male XY chromosomes. Some are assigned female or male at birth depending on their external genitalia.

Semenya told BBC Sport that she was “born without a uterus” and born “with internal testicles” and said: “I am a woman and have a vagina”.

Cas said, external athletes like Semenya with 5-ARD have “circulating testosterone at the level of the male 46 XY population and not at the level of the female 46 XX population”, which gives them “a significant sporting advantage over 46 XX female athletes”.

Given that Semenya has the equipment (though perhaps not the ability) for making sperm, Semenya is biologically male. So is Khelif, though people are loath to say it or use the pronoun “he” (check their Wikipedia entries).  It’s possible that Khelif has another DSD, PAIS D (partial androgen insensitivity syndrome), but this is less likely based on phenotype; and this condition is rarer.

. . . which leads us to the next question:

c.) Is Khelif a man?  if he has 5-ARD and went through male puberty, producing testosterone at higher male levels (these don’t overlap with female levels), levels that require suppression to meet sports standards, the answer is yes. Female-like genitalia don’t make someone a biological woman if they have testes (see above).

But there is one last question, and the most relevant one.

d.) Should Khelif be competing in women’s boxing?  Given what we know of his size, strength, and performance, as well as his XY status and what must have been high testosterone, the answer is, at present, no. Suppressing testosterone in his case will not eliminate any athletic advantages Khelif accrued by going through male puberty. But further investigation would be useful (see below).

e.) How should sports organizations determine if someone has a sex-based athletic advantage? Ideally, it should be a three-part test. First, are there testes or ovaries? If there are testes, that’s already a sign of male advantage, particularly when accompanied by an XY karyotype.  Further tests can examine testosterone levels and exposure as well as sequencing of the DNA to see if there are genetic mutations causing DSDs. But there’s already enough information from Khelif’s obvious athletic advantages and his XY karyotype to mandate banning him/her from boxing until these other issues are examined.

Finally, let me add that most people having DSDs are not athletes in the limelight, and in fact have to deal with medical, emotional, and social issues that arise in conjunction with having DSDs.  These people should not be regarded as freaks, have the same moral and legal equality as the non-afflicted, and should be treated with empathy

h/t: Carole Hooven for discussion and clarification

Measles cases are increasing. Kids and even many adults are at risk of injury and death from this vaccine-preventable illness that should be a historical footnote.

The post Measles 2024: ‘Merica, are you okay? first appeared on Science-Based Medicine.